Ayatollah Hasan Muddaris, a Shi’a faqih, and politician, was one of the most revered figures in modern Iranian history, embodying the ideals of Islamic resistance and justice during a tumultuous period of political transformation. As a parliamentarian, Ayatollah Muddaris was an unyielding voice for justice, tirelessly opposing policies that undermined national sovereignty and Islamic values. The assassination of Ayatollah Muddaris transformed him into a symbol of resistance, inspiring generations of Iranians to uphold the principles of justice and faith in the face of oppression. This study aims to explore the life, political activism, and martyrdom of Ayatollah Hasan Muddaris within the broader context of Iranian history and Islamic thought. By examining his intellectual and political contributions, this research sheds light on his enduring legacy as a champion of constitutionalism and religious authority. The narrative of Ayatollah Muddaris’ life serves not only as a historical account but also as a timeless example of the intersection between faith and politics in the struggle for justice.
His Early Life
Ayatollah Hasan Muddaris was born in 1870 in a village named Sarābe-Kachou, Isfahan Province of Iran[1]. His family is known for its dedication to Islamic scholarship and his lineage is traced back to a long line of religious scholars, which laid the foundation for his lifelong commitment to Islamic learning and service[2].
In 1881, Ayatollah Muddaris began his formal education in the seminaries of Isfahan, which were renowned as centers of Islamic scholarship during the time. Over the course of 13 years in the seminary of this city, he benefited from the teachings of more than thirty scholars[3]. Initially, he studied Jāmiʿ al-Muqaddimāt, focusing on Arabic grammar and morphology. He also learned the fundamentals of Arabic literature, logic, and rhetoric under teachers such as Mīrzā ʿAbd al-ʿAlī Harandī. Under the guidance of Ākhūnd Mullā Muḥammad Kāshī, he studied Sharḥ al-Lumaʿ in jurisprudence, followed by Qawānīn and Fuṣūl in the principles of Islamic law (Uṣūl al-Fiqh). Among the prominent scholars who imparted wisdom in philosophy, mysticism, and metaphysics to Modarres was the renowned sage Mīrzā Jahāngīr Khān Qashqāʾī[4]. His intellectual rigor and mastery of these fields earned him the respect of his peers and teachers alike, marking him as a rising scholar within the Shi’a religious community.
After completing his studies in Isfahan, Modarres arrived in Najaf in Shaʿbān 1311 AH. Upon visiting the sacred shrine of the first light of Imamate, Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (PBUH) and paying respects to Ayatollah Mīrzā Shīrāzī, he took up residence in the Ṣadr School. There, he shared a room with the renowned mystic Shaykh Ḥāj Āqā Shaykh Ḥasan ʿAlī Nukhudakī Iṣfahānī. In Najaf, Modarres benefited from the teachings of grand scholars such as Sayyid Muḥammad Fashārakī and Sharīʿat Iṣfahānī. He also maintained connections with figures like Sayyid Abū al-Ḥasan Iṣfahānī, Sayyid Muḥammad Ṣādiq Ṭabāṭabāʾī, Shaykh ʿAbd al-Karīm Ḥāʾirī, Sayyid Hibat al-Dīn Shahrastānī, and Sayyid Muṣṭafā Kāshānī. Modarres engaged in advanced discussions with Ayatollah Ḥāj Sayyid Abū al-Ḥasan and Ayatollah Ḥāj Sayyid ʿAlī Kāzarūnī. After seven years in Najaf, having received confirmation of his status as a jurist (Mujtahid) from the scholars of the city, he returned to Isfahan in 1318 AH (at the age of forty)[5].
His Scholarly Contributions
Upon returning to Iran, Ayatollah Muddaris began teaching in the seminaries, where he earned the title “Muddaris” (meaning “teacher”) as a testament to his exceptional pedagogical skills. He never abandoned teaching, even during his time in the parliament[6], because he considered teaching his primary occupation and politics as his secondary pursuit.
He taught jurisprudence (Fiqh) and the Principles of Islamic law (Uṣūl) in the mornings at the Jadda-e Kuchek School[7], and logic and Sharḥ-e Manẓūma in the afternoons at the Jadda-e Bozorg School. On Thursdays, he conducted lessons on Nahj al-Balāgha[8].
Ayatollah Muddaris’ scholarly contributions extended beyond the classroom. He authored works on Islamic jurisprudence and theology[9], though many of his writings were lost or suppressed during the political upheavals of his time.
His Political Contributions
I) The Constitutional Movement
Between 1905 and 1911 in Iran, there was a political movement called “The Constitutional Movement” aimed to curb monarchical absolutism and establish a system of governance rooted in constitutional law and accountability. Ayatollah Hasan Muddaris emerged as a pivotal figure in this movement, advocating for the integration of Islamic principles with constitutional ideals[10]. His role reflected his deep commitment to justice, national sovereignty, and the protection of religious and cultural values.
Ayatollah Muddaris therefore supported the establishment of a constitution and a parliamentary system (Majlis) as essential mechanisms to limit royal authority and ensure the participation of the people in governance. He saw these structures as tools to safeguard Iran’s independence from foreign interference and protect the rights of its citizens.
II) Role in Parliament: A Voice for Justice
Ayatollah Hasan Muddaris’ tenure in the Iranian Parliament (Majlis) was a defining chapter in his life, solidifying his reputation as a courageous advocate for justice and an unwavering defender of Islamic values. Elected as a representative of Tehran during the second Majlis in 1914[11], Muddaris brought with him a profound sense of responsibility to address the pressing issues of his time. His presence in the legislature marked a pivotal moment in the struggle to balance constitutional reforms with the preservation of Iran’s Islamic identity and national sovereignty.
One of Muddaris’ most significant contributions to the Majlis was his relentless opposition to foreign interference in Iranian affairs. At a time when British and Russian imperial powers sought to manipulate Iran’s political and economic systems for their gain, Muddaris emerged as a vocal critic of foreign domination. He consistently argued against treaties and agreements that undermined Iran’s sovereignty, including unfavorable trade deals and concessions to foreign companies. Muddaris was instrumental in opposing the Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919, which aimed to grant Britain significant control over Iran’s military, financial, and administrative affairs. His speeches in the Majlis resonated with nationalist sentiment, galvanizing public support for resistance against foreign exploitation.
In the Majlis, Muddaris was not only a statesman but also a guardian of Islamic values. He viewed the secularization policies being promoted by certain factions within the government as a direct threat to Iran’s cultural and religious heritage. His legislative efforts sought to ensure that laws passed by the Majlis were in harmony with Islamic principles, reflecting his belief that religion and governance were inseparable in the pursuit of justice and societal well-being.
Muddaris frequently emphasized the importance of maintaining a balance between modern reforms and the preservation of Islamic traditions. He argued that true progress could only be achieved if it was rooted in the moral and ethical teachings of Islam, which he believed provided a timeless framework for governance.
III) Opposition to Reza Shah’s Autocracy
Ayatollah Hasan Muddaris’ opposition to Reza Shah’s autocratic rule was one of the defining features of his political career[12]. As Reza Khan transitioned from a military commander to Iran’s monarch, his vision for a modernized and secular state often clashed with the Islamic values and principles upheld by Ayatollah Muddaris. The confrontation between these two figures symbolized a broader struggle over the direction of Iran’s political and cultural identity in the early 20th century.
Ayatollah Muddaris viewed Reza Shah’s centralization of power as a betrayal of the constitutional ideals that the Iranian people had fought for during the Constitutional Revolution. As an elected representative in the Majlis, Ayatollah Muddaris consistently resisted Reza Shah’s efforts to erode the authority of the parliament and consolidate power in the hands of the monarchy.
He criticized Reza Shah’s disregard for the rule of law and his authoritarian tendencies, warning that such actions undermined the nation’s progress and sovereignty. Ayatollah Muddaris argued that a strong, independent Majlis was essential to safeguard the rights of the people and ensure that governance remained accountable to the public. In addition, Ayatollah Muddaris also opposed Reza Shah’s willingness to cooperate with foreign powers, particularly the British, in pursuit of his political ambitions.
Arrest, Exile, and Martyrdom
The relentless opposition of Ayatollah Hasan Muddaris to Reza Shah’s autocracy and secularization policies eventually led to his persecution. Refusing to yield to threats or abandon his principles, Muddaris became an emblem of resistance, yet his defiance came at a steep cost.
In 1928, under the guise of national security, Reza Shah’s forces orchestrated the arrest of Ayatollah Muddaris. His detention signaled the regime’s determination to eliminate any opposition that stood in the way of its centralization of power. Muddaris was stripped of his parliamentary immunity and subjected to political isolation, marking the beginning of his forced removal from public life.
Following his arrest, Ayatollah Muddaris was exiled to the remote town of Khaf, in the northeastern province of Khorasan[13]. This location was deliberately chosen to isolate him from his supporters and curtail his ability to influence the public or organize resistance.
Despite the harsh conditions of his exile, Ayatollah Muddaris remained resolute in his principles. He refused to capitulate to the regime’s demands or abandon his vision of a just and Islamic society. The Pahlavi regime ultimately decided that Ayatollah Muddaris’ existence posed an ongoing threat, even in exile. In 1937, agents of Reza Shah carried out his assassination[14].
His Legacy and Impact
The legacy of Ayatollah Hasan Muddaris transcends his lifetime, resonating deeply within Iranian history and Islamic thought. His steadfast commitment to justice, unwavering opposition to tyranny, and insistence on integrating Islamic principles into governance have left an indelible mark on the socio-political fabric of Iran.
Today, Ayatollah Muddaris’ legacy is commemorated annually in Iran on Majlis Day, which honors his contributions to the nation and the ideals for which he gave his life. His martyrdom serves as a reminder of the sacrifices required to uphold principles of justice and morality in the face of authoritarianism. Ayatollah Muddaris is celebrated as a symbol of resistance against oppression and foreign domination.
The legacy of Ayatollah Muddaris offers enduring lessons for contemporary societies grappling with the challenges of justice, governance, and cultural identity. His life exemplifies the power of moral conviction and the importance of standing firm in the face of oppression. For Iranians, Muddaris remains a guiding figure whose principles continue to shape the nation’s pursuit of justice and independence.
Conclusion
Ayatollah Hasan Muddaris stands as a towering figure in Iran’s modern history, embodying the principles of justice, faith, and resistance. His life was marked by an unyielding commitment to defending Islamic values, protecting national sovereignty, and championing constitutional governance in the face of autocracy and foreign domination. Despite enduring exile, persecution, and ultimately martyrdom, Muddaris’ legacy continues to inspire Iranians and Muslims worldwide to uphold moral integrity and resist oppression. His unwavering faith in the power of justice and his vision for an Islamic society rooted in ethical governance remain as relevant today as they were during his lifetime, offering enduring lessons on courage and principled leadership in the face of adversity.
References:
[1] . Makki, Ḥusayn (1359 SH), Mudarris Qahramān-e Āzādī, vol. 1, p. 54.
[2] . Mudarrisī, ʿAlī (1374 SH), Mard-e Rūzgārān (Mudarris Shahīd, Nābgha-ye Mellī-ye Īrān), p. 397.
[3] . Sayyid Muḥsin Amīn, Aʿyān al-Shīʿa, vol. 5, p. 21.
[4] . ʿAbd al-ʿAlī Bāqī (1370 SH), Mudarris: Mujāhidī Shekast-Nāpazīr, pp. 160–161.
[5] . Makki, Ḥusayn (1359 SH), Mudarris Qahramān-e Āzādī, vol. 2, p. 129.
[6] . Ibid, vol. 1, p. 115.
[7] . Golban, Muḥammad (1367 SH), Mudarris dar Tārīkh va Tasmīr, p. 26.
[8] . ʿAbd al-ʿAlī Bāqī (1370 SH), Mudarris: Mujāhedī Shekast-Nāpazīr, p. 29.
[9] . Abū al-Faḍl Shakūrī, Shakhṣiyyat-e ʿIlmī va Fiqhī-ye Shahīd Mudarris. (B2n.ir/u37387)
[10] . Muḥammadi, Faʿālīyyat-hā-ye Sīyāsī-ye Ijtimāʿī-ye Āyatollāh Shahīd Sayyid Ḥasan Mudarris, Motāleʿāt-e Inqilāb-e Islāmī, 1386 SH, Nos. 9 and 10.
[11] . Ibid
[12] . Ibid
[13] . Makki, Ḥusayn (1359 SH), Mudarris Qahramān-e Āzādī, vol. 2, p. 78.
[14] . Ibid, vol. 2, p. 785.
