The concept of Jihad in Islam is one of the most discussed and often misunderstood aspects of the Islamic tradition. Far from being limited to warfare, it encompasses a broad spectrum of moral, spiritual, and social efforts aimed at nurturing justice, safeguarding human dignity, and promoting peace. Classical Islamic teachings outline different categories of Jihad in Islam, including the inner struggle for moral refinement, the defense of the community, and the preservation of religious freedom. Closely related themes—such as the institution of jizyah and its social philosophy, as well as the prohibition of warfare during the sacred months—further illuminate Islam’s ethical framework for conflict, coexistence, and restraint. Together, these topics help clarify the higher purpose behind Jihad in Islam, revealing it as a principled, morally grounded system rather than an unchecked call to violence.
Categories of Jihad in Islam
Islamic Jihad can be classified into three categories:
- The ‘Initiating’ and ‘Liberating’ Jihad: Allah has prescribed a set of orders and chalked out programs for the development, freedom, comfort, happiness and prosperity of man, and has entrusted unto His prophets the responsibility of communicating these to the people. Now, if an individual or a group of individuals regard the communication of these orders detrimental to their personal lowly interests and Endeavour to obstruct the prophets in fulfilling their divine responsibilities, the prophets possess the right to remove the obstructions lying in their path, initially by utilizing peaceful means and if not possible, then by use of force, in order to acquire for themselves the freedom to propagate (the commandments of Allah).
In other words, in every society, people have the right to listen to those who invite them towards the path of Truth and possess the freedom to accept their invitation. But if some individuals deprive them of their legitimate rights and inhibit them from hearing the truth and becoming free from their mental and social captivity and slavery, the followers of these divine programs possess the right to utilize every means at their disposal in order to achieve this freedom. It is here that the necessity of initiating Jihad in Islam and other divine religions becomes manifest.
Similarly, if some individuals were to compel the believers to revert to their original religion, every means could be employed for repelling such compulsions too.
- The ‘Defensive’ Jihad: At times it so happens that a battle is imposed upon an individual or a group such that they find themselves as the object of a calculated and/or a surprise attack. In such an instance, all divine and man-made laws permit the persons attacked to defend themselves and employ every available means to protect themselves. This kind of Jihad is referred to as the defensive Jihad; the battles of Ahzab, Uhud, Mutah, Tabuk, Hunain and some other Islamic battles are examples of this category of Jihad which were defensive in nature.
- Jihad for the ‘Eradication of Polytheism and Idolatry’: Although Islam invites the people to select this religion – the last and the most exalted of all religions – nonetheless, it also respects the freedom of belief and it is for this reason that it grants the communities, which possess divine books, sufficient opportunity so that, after study and reflection, they may accept the religion of Islam. But if they do not do so it looks upon them as a confederate and by placing some specific conditions, which are neither intricate nor difficult, endeavours to have a peaceful co-existence with them.
However, the issue of polytheism is different since it is neither a religion nor a doctrine and so it cannot be looked upon with respect and esteem; rather, it is a kind of superstition, deviation and foolishness. In reality, it is a kind of mental and moral sickness, which ought to be uprooted.
The use of the terms ‘freedom’ and ‘respect’, in connection with the views of others, is applicable if the views or the beliefs are at least based upon a foundation. However, deviation, superstition and sickness are not something that can be treated as respectable, and it is due to this that Islam has ordered idolatry to be uprooted from human society, even at the cost of warfare; if idol temples and their evil influences cannot be brought down and destroyed by peaceful means, then they should be uprooted by means of force[1].
From what has been mentioned above, the answer to the venomous propaganda of the Church becomes plainly evident since a sentence more explicit than: “There is no compulsion in (acceptance) of the religion” which appears in the Qur`an, cannot be found in this regard.
Of course, for the purpose of distortion, these people focus their attention on the battles of Islam; however, a study of these battles clearly reveals that while some of these were purely defensive in nature, others – belonged to the category of Initiating Jihad – were not initiated with the objective of conquering lands and forcing the people into the religion of Islam but instead, for overturning incorrect and oppressive regimes and providing an opportunity to the people to freely study and review the religion and modes of social lifestyle.
Islamic history is a living testimony to the above since it has been observed repeatedly that when the Muslims conquered cities, they would grant freedom to the followers of other religions (just as they would do to the Muslims) and these people even performed their acts of worship and observed their religious ceremonies unhindered. If a limited tax, by the name of Jizyah, was taken from them, it was for the purpose of providing social security and covering the expenses of the security forces, since their lives, properties and womenfolk were under the protection of Islam.
Those people who deal with the history of Islam, are aware of this reality and even the Christians, who have written books on Islam, have acknowledged this issue. For example, in the book “La Civilisation des Arabes” we read: “The Muslims were so lenient towards the other communities that the religious leaders of these communities had the permission to organize their own religious gatherings.”
In some historical accounts it has been reported that a group of Christians, who had arrived in the presence of the Noble Prophet for the purpose of research and investigation, performed their religious ceremonies in the Mosque of the Noble Prophet (s.a.w.a) in the city of Medina – freely and unchecked![2]
The Jizyah and its Philosophy
Jizyah is derived from Jazā’ and refers to the money taken from the non-Muslims, who are under the protection of the Islamic government. It has been named so because it is paid by the non-Muslims to the Islamic government as recompense for the protection granted to them with respect to their lives and properties (as stated by Raghib, in his book al-Mufradat). It is a kind of Islamic poll tax that is associated with individuals – not land or wealth; in other words, it is a yearly computation.
Some people are of the opinion that its root is of non-Arabic origin and has been derived from the ancient Persian word کزيت, which means tax taken to strengthen the army. However, numerous others believe that this word is totally Arabic of origin and, as we have previously mentioned, taken from Jazā’, in view of the fact that the tax was a compensation for the security provided by the Islamic government to the religious minorities.
Jizyah also existed prior to Islam and it is the view of some people that the first person to levy it was Anushirwan, the Sassanid king. But even if we do not consider this to be the case, he was certainly one who did levy this tax upon his people. He would take varying amounts of 4, 6, 8, or 12 dirhams as a yearly tax from all individuals who were between the ages of 20 and 50, except the functionaries of the government.
The main philosophy behind this tax has been explained as follows: Defending the existence, independence and security of a nation is the responsibility of all the individuals of that nation. Now, if one group comes forward to practically shoulder this responsibility (in the form of soldiers), whilst another group, due to its involvement in work and trade, is unable to stand alongside the soldiers, then, it is the responsibility of this second group to pay for the expenses of the soldiers and security forces in the form of a per capita tax, in the year.
We have evidence which attests to this philosophy to be true in the case of Jizyah – be it before the arrival of Islam or after. The age group of those who had to pay Jizyah during the rule of Anushirwan – as has been previously stated by us (between 20 and 50 years) – is an articulate testimony in this regard, since people in this age group possess the strength and ability to carry weapons, and to help out in maintaining the independence and security of a nation. But being engaged in work and trade, they used to pay the Jizyah instead.
Another testimony in this regard is the fact that in Islam, it is not necessary for Muslims to pay Jizyah. This is because Jihad is obligatory upon everyone and when the occasion demands, everyone must step out into the battlefield to stand up against the enemy. Since the religious minorities are exempted from Jihad, they must pay Jizyah in order that, in this way, they (too) have a part in safeguarding the security of the Islamic nation in which they lead a life of peace and tranquility. In addition to this, the exemption of ladies, children, the old and the blind of the religious minorities from paying Jizyah is yet another proof in this regard.
From what has been mentioned, it becomes plain that Jizyah is just a kind of monetary assistance paid by the People of the Book vis-à-vis responsibility, which the Muslims have shouldered with respect to safeguarding their lives and possessions. Thus, those people who have regarded Jizyah as a kind of ‘subjugation of rights’, have not taken into consideration the spirit and the idea that lie behind it. They are oblivious to the fact that when the Ahlul Kitab (People of the Book) enter into the category of Ahlul Dhimmah (protected people), the Islamic leadership is obliged to grant them protection from every kind of aggression and harassment.
Bearing in mind that against the payment of Jizyah, in addition to availing protection and security benefits, they do not possess any other obligation such as participation in battles or involvement in other defensive and security affairs, it is obvious that their responsibility towards the Islamic government is much lighter than that of the Muslims. It follows that by paying a meagre annual amount, they avail themselves of all the benefits of the Islamic government as do the Muslims while, at the same time, they are not exposed to any danger.
This philosophy can be corroborated by examining the covenants established during the period of the Islamic government between the Muslims and the People of the Book in connection with Jizyah, in which it has been expressly stated that the People of the Book were obliged to pay the Jizyah and in return, the Muslims were obliged to guarantee their safety, to the extent that even if some enemy happened to attack them, the Islamic government would be duty-bound to defend them!
These covenants are numerous in number and, as an example, we present below the covenant, which was entered into between Khalid b. Walid and the Christians living around the Euphrates. The text of the covenant is as follows: “This is a letter from Khalid b. Walid to Saluba[3] and his companions. I hereby enter into a covenant of Jizyah and defence with you, and in exchange for it, you shall avail of the benefit of our support. As long as we continue to support and defend you, we shall possess the right to take Jizyah from you and if not, then we shall have no right to take it. This covenant has been written in the month of Safar, twelve years after the migration (Hijri).”[4]
Interestingly, we observe that whenever there was a failure or neglect in supporting or defending them, the Muslims would either return the Jizyah to them or not collect it from them at all! It is also necessary to note that the measure of Jizyah is not fixed and defined – rather, it depends upon the ability of those paying it. However, Islamic history reveals that a small amount would usually be specified, and at times, this would not exceed one dinar a year. Occasionally the covenant even contained the condition that those paying the Jizyah were obliged to pay it in the measure of their means and ability.
The above discussion serves to clear the various objections and caustic criticisms leveled at this Islamic ruling, particularly Jihad and establish that this is a ruling that is both just and logical[5].
The Philosophy of Prohibition of Battles in the Holy Months
In the verse, we read:
إِنَّ عِدَّةَ الشُّهُورِ عِنْدَ اللٌّهِ إِثْـنَا عَشَرَ شَهْراً فِي كِتَابِ اللٌّهِ يَوْمَ خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَ الأَرْضَ مِنْهَا أَرْبَعَةٌ حُرُمٌ
“Surely the number of months with Allah is twelve months in Allah’s ordinance since the day when He created the heavens and the earth, of these four being sacred.”[6]
The question that is propounded here is: Why are Muslims prohibited to wage battles in the four months (Dhul Qa’dah, Dhul Hijjah, Muharram and Rajab)?
Prohibition of battles in these four months is one of the ways to bring to conclusion long-drawn and protracted battles and a means of invitation towards peace and reconciliation. With the laying down of arms, the dying down of the sound of clashing of swords and whistling of arrows, and the presence of an opportunity for thought and reflection, there is a strong possibility that the battles may come to an end.
There is a vast difference between a persistent and continued confrontation and a renewed start following a lull – the latter being much more difficult and severe. We cannot forget how difficult it had been during the Vietnam War, to bring about a ceasefire for a period of 24 hours for the start of the Christian New Year – or in other similar instances.
On the other hand, Islam has announced for its followers a ceasefire of four months in every year, and this itself is an indication of its peace-loving nature. But as we previously mentioned, if the enemy desires to misuse this Islamic ruling and trample the sanctity of these holy months, the Muslims have been granted permission to retaliate in a likewise manner[7].
Conclusion
A proper understanding of Jihad in Islam requires looking beyond popular misconceptions and returning to the balanced, value-driven framework laid out in Islamic sources. When examined holistically—through its categories, the rationale behind jizyah, and the prohibition of battle during the holy months—Jihad in Islam emerges as a comprehensive program for spiritual growth, social protection, and ethical conduct in times of conflict. Its aim is not aggression, but the cultivation of justice, the defense of the vulnerable, and the creation of conditions in which faith and human flourishing can thrive. Recognizing these purposes allows general audiences to appreciate Jihad in Islam as a nuanced and principled institution within the broader moral vision of Islam.
Notes
[1] . Makārim Shīrāzi. Tafsir-e-Nemunah, vol. 2, pg. 15.
[2] . Ibid, pg. 205.
[3] . The leader of the Christian group.
[4] . Quoted from Tafsir al-Manār, vol. 10, pg. 294.
[5] . Tafsir-e-Nemuneh, vol. 7, pg. 354.
[6] . Qur’an 9:36.
[7] . Tafsir-e-Nemuneh, vol. 7, pg. 408.
